Training Model for Iranian Physical Education Teachers Based on Multi-grounded Theory

Introduction

For almost three decades, human resources have been considered an organization's most valuable asset (Teimouri et al., 2018), driving organizational growth. Successful organizations, therefore, invest in developing their employees' skills (Dithole et al., 2017). Given the crucial role of teachers in education a primary institution for cultural dynamism and sustainability (Navid Adham & Sadeghzadeh Ghamsari, 2015). capable teachers, characterized by strong educational performance, commitment, and interpersonal skills (Memari et al., 2013), are essential. Teacher effectiveness relies on both individual abilities and the educational environment (Altan et al., 2019). Consequently, designing and implementing an ideal model is necessary to cultivate the required competencies in teachers.

Several models address education, including stout's organizational training needs analysis model (1933), the needs assessment model of the educational system association (Torkzadeh & Abbaszadegan, 2009), the direct and indirect elements analysis mode, the learning needs analysis model, the analysis needs assessment model, skill matrices, the trend model, the global needs assessment model, and the Houston needs assessment model (Houston, 1978). Training and educational needs are discussed in most of these models. In recent years, new educational models have been developed that provide a context for personalized and collaborative learning by utilizing advanced technologies and active learning approaches. AI-based schools personalize education through adaptive software. Project-based learning and flipped classrooms enhance interaction and understanding via practical activities and student participation. Question-based learning strengthens critical thinking by emphasizing inquiry and discovery. Immersive learning with virtual reality and game-based learning leverage technology to create engaging and effective educational experiences (Mirghasemi et al., 2025).

In teacher education models, numerous general, professional, and specialized competencies are mentioned. For example, Qin and Sonchan (2024) in research introduced the following components as developing competencies for a high school PE teacher model: research and innovation capacity, information gathering capacity, teaching and organizational skills, specialized knowledge, personal characteristics, interpersonal relationships, professional quality, teacher-student relationship, professional development. Alimohammadi et al. (2019) in a study introduced six components as dimensions of professional empowerment of teachers: 1- Curriculum Content and Education, 2- digital literacy, 3- ethics and religious insight, 4- improvement of internship, 5- organizational structure, 6- development of professional skills. From the perspective of Silander and Stigmar (2023), teachers should have content knowledge, and the strategies of training courses should be adapted to the field of study, and they should understand the cognitive processes involved in learning and group dynamics, and the more they learn about the style of students learning, the more efficient and better their education will be. From Jones’s perspective (2023), teachers should be able to implement professional learning in the classroom, and for that, they themselves should be trained from a professional competence perspective (Karlsen, 2019). If teachers learn in the workplace and increase their professional skills, increase their knowledge, and create a work identity, they have taken steps to improve their satisfaction (Sato et al., 2022).

Physical education (PE) teacher training is crucial for several reasons. PE teachers require specialized competencies to effectively teach various sports. The subject offers students diverse learning opportunities across multiple educational dimensions (Vahdani et al., 2021) and allows teachers to impart valuable life skills (Vahdani et al., 2024). Furthermore, PE directly contributes to students' development of healthy, active lifestyles (Eslami et al., 2024). Research, such as Pascual's (2006) study, emphasizes the need for PE teachers to possess professional competencies that enable students to apply learned skills in daily life.

Furthermore, teacher competence, especially in the high-demand field of high school PE, forms the foundation of effective teaching and professional development (Chen et al., 2025). This includes integrating the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors necessary to achieve educational goals (Chen et al., 2025). Furthermore, in addition Teacher competence is essential for long-term professional sustainability, and competent educators are more likely to pursue continuous learning opportunities such as advanced certifications or professional development workshops (Lai & Liu, 2025).  These activities enhance teaching effectiveness, strengthen professional identity, and contribute to job satisfaction and reduced burnout. Additionally, teacher competence plays a critical role in promoting adolescent health (Chen et al., 2025).

The importance of teacher competence often faces systemic challenges. PE, compared to core academic subjects, is often undervalued, leading to less support and limited organizational resources (Fortnum et al., 2025). This neglect, combined with the emotional and physical demands specific to the profession, hinders the development and application of PE teachers’ competencies (Chen et al., 2025). Policymakers and educational leaders should strive to address these issues by prioritizing professional development, allocating necessary financial resources, and recognizing the vital role of PE in comprehensive education (Chen et al., 2025).

Sufri and Chang (2019) Philippine PE teacher training has expanded since the 1950s, shifting the focus of elementary PE from physical fitness to holistic student development through student-centered sports and outdoor activities. Generalist teachers are no longer considered adequate for PE instruction. While government policies have increased the number of specialized PE teachers in elementary schools, staffing remains insufficient. School management should prioritize quality PE classes and sports programs through coordinated effort. Quennerstedt (2019) emphasized in his research the art of teaching as a key factor in PE instruction, acknowledging that teaching in PE has the responsibility of engaging students in exercises that bring unexpected and new things. His research also pointed out prominent features such as critical thinking and social justice.

The role of sports teachers extends beyond the classroom in terms of professional development. PE teachers have a direct impact on improving the physical and mental well-being of students and play a central role in addressing the social challenges of students, indicating their special position (Gatt et al., 2024). Teachers who have more outstanding researches and organizational abilities, professional knowledge, and personal characteristics are more dedicated, enthusiastic, and equipped for their teaching roles (Chen et al., 2025). Committed teachers have more energy and motivation even when facing problems. PE teachers themselves are eager to engage in physical activity and transmit this enthusiasm to students (Fang & Qi, 2023).

Hodges et al. (2023) showed in their research that newly hired teachers, who are considered the new generation of teachers, have different views compared to older teachers. They stated that they always have a critical view of the PE curriculum and complained about the inconsistency between what they learned at university and what they should implement in school. Gong et al. (2023) stated that PE teacher training programs in China are usually divided into general modules, theoretical modules and research and teaching method modules. Moon et al. (2023) stated that pre-service teacher training plays an important role in the professional preparation of coaches, but currently, no educational tools have been specifically designed to support and learn the development of OLPE (Online Learning for PE teachers) teaching skills. Also, pre-service training can help develop teachers’ research literacy (MacPhail et al., 2025). Research is usually not written for teachers, and most of it is in academic language that is difficult for teachers to interpret or does not provide practical examples.

Research is not usually written for teachers, and most of it is in academic language that is difficult for them to interpret or does not offer practical examples (MacPhail et al., 2025). Teacher training influences curriculum elements such as program objectives, implementation, and assessment (Masouminejad et al., 2021). If individuals complete initial PE teacher education (PETE) programs, they enter organizational socialization and then become professional PE teachers in schools (Washburn et al., 2020).

Therefore, PE teacher training plays a significant role in achieving educational goals and curriculum standards (Derri et al., 2014). Because one of the important curricula in schools is PE, achieving the goals of general education through physical activities and maintaining and promoting the health and well-being of students is a difficult task entrusted to PE teachers. In this regard, PE teachers can be referred to as an important part of the human resources of education, because in education, attention is paid to the growth and development of all dimensions of human beings, and they have a special role and position in achieving the goals of education. Despite fundamental changes in the education system (changes in the content of the PE curriculum, changes in the approaches of the education system and transformational shifts, etc.), a specific process for designing a teacher training model for PE teachers based on new research theories has not yet been carried out. Therefore, the main issue in this research is: What should be the Teacher training model for PE teachers so that a suitable Teacher training program can be designed and implemented to improve the competencies of PE teachers?

Research Methods

The research method was applied in terms of purpose and qualitative in terms of data, using a multi-grounded approach (Cohen et al., 2017). Participants in this research included experts and university professors, managers and experts in the headquarters of the Ministry of Education, general managers of education departments of provinces, leading educational supervisors, and PE teachers of both genders, with different geographical distributions (Table 1). A purposeful sampling method was used, with a sample size of 17 individuals until theoretical saturation was reached. The research tool was a semi-structured interview. The process of conducting interviews and collecting data continued until the point of theoretical saturation, where it was no longer possible to obtain newer data, and three more interviews were conducted to ensure saturation.

Multi-grounded methodology modeling involves three key steps:

1. Theory generation: This involves inductive coding, conceptual refinement, pattern coding, and theory enrichment.
2. Clear grounding: Goldkuhl and Cronholm (2010) have introduced three types of grounding: theoretical alignment, empirical validation, and theoretical coherence assessment. Grounding means analyzing the validity of an evolving theory, not only in terms of empirical accuracy but also in terms of the types of validity claims. We use this concept with some modifications, focusing mainly on the fact that validity claims can be contested and validated in different ways. For a more in-depth discussion of validity claims in a field of knowledge, see Goldkuhl (2004). There are three main processes associated with three types of validity claims:

Theoretical validity: confirms that a theory is consistent with other theoretical abstractions.

Empirical validity: confirms that the theory is consistent with empirical observations.

Internal validity: assesses how coherent the theory’s discourse about the world is.

3. Thinking about research interests: During this stage, the researcher critically evaluates the research progress, considering revisions to the main questions and results. As understanding deepens, research questions may be refined for greater utility and precision. Emerging findings, whether clarifying or contradictory, may prompt revisions to interpretations and evidence. This stage allows for purposeful review and modification of future research directions, aligning them with new insights and potentially expanding the research scope or revealing innovative approaches.

Regarding the assessment of validity and reliability, Wolcott (2008) believes that Triangulation or comprehensiveness is the best strategy for strengthening the internal validity of a qualitative study. To achieve this, several types of Triangulations were used, including the use of multiple methods (interviews and analysis of the content of the research background), multiple sources for data (diversity in research participants), and multiple reviewers (two coders) to confirm the emerging findings (Wolcott, 2008). The data were analyzed using MAXQDA software.

Descriptive findings related to the research sample are presented in Table 1.

Table 1- Demographic characteristics

Findings

Table 2 shows the concepts and categories extracted from the interview.

Table 2- Themes, categories and concepts extracted from the interviews

Table 3 shows the concepts extracted from the models, patterns, and research background.

Table 3- Concepts extracted from scientific studies and research

Table 4 shows the final concepts and categories of training and empowerment of PE teachers.

Table 4- Final concepts and categories of training and empowerment of PE teachers

Discussion

The aim of the present study was to develop a model for teacher training of PE teachers in Iran based on the multi-grounded theory. The research findings indicate that PE teaching-learning competencies, technological competencies, competencies related to structure and rules, research literacy, specialized PE competencies, professional competence, and cultural development are among the most important main categories that should be considered in the teacher training model of PE teachers.

The first category of this research concerns PE teaching-learning competencies, encompassing the teaching-learning process and PE assessment and evaluation. The study identified lesson planning, classroom management, teaching methods, educational experience, knowledge of educational materials and equipment, curriculum content knowledge, grouping methods, familiarity with curriculum planning principles, content integration skills, and motivation to create a diverse learning environment as effective components of PE teachers' teaching-learning knowledge. Furthermore, evaluation principles, evaluation for learning, evaluation types, evaluation tools and methods, and the function of assessment and evaluation also significantly affect this knowledge.

Effective education relies on pedagogical principles, ensuring that goals and curricula are both desirable and impactful. Pedagogy, as Cel Léorier suggests, explores the underlying principles that shape and influence education. (Vahdani et al., 2021).

Effective pedagogy combines knowledge, thought, experience, and creativity, requiring a balance of art and science, theory and practice (Levin, 2003). Vahdani et al. (2021) emphasize the importance of addressing individual student differences in characteristics, needs, and abilities when selecting teaching methods, content, materials, and evaluation to promote active student participation. Jones (2022) highlights the classroom learning process and teacher-student interaction as crucial for PE teacher professionalization. Silander (2023) suggests improved teacher training in student learning methods will enhance educational effectiveness. Hastie (2021) advocates for planning to develop shared content knowledge, and Darling-Hammond (2006) affirms the significant impact of teachers' content knowledge in PE and education.

The second category resulting from this research is the technological competencies of PE teachers, which can be effective in designing the training model for PE teachers. The sub-categories include knowledge of technological tools and the use of technology. The researchers in this study found that technology tools, knowledge of hardware tools in education, knowledge of software tools applicable in education, educational media, artificial intelligence, educational media, the use of technology in teaching, the use of technology in evaluation, and software and applications are effective concepts on the technological competencies of PE teachers. Therefore, in systems that increase the level of efficiency, the teachers of that society will be more prepared, competent, and capable. Currently, the most important initial problems of educational systems are the low level of digital literacy among the audience, the lack of software and hardware infrastructure, and the lack of a virtual education culture (Vahdani et al., 2023). Webster et al. (2021) argue that online PE is affected by curriculum, unequal access to digital resources, family and community support, and that e-learning teachers require both traditional and technological pedagogical skills. (Vahdani et al., 2021). More than 90% of teachers had no online educational experience before the Covid-19 pandemic (Marshall et al., 2020). Alimohammadi et al. (2019) consider digital literacy to be one of the dimensions of teacher empowerment. Supriyatno et al. (2020) found in their research that having information literacy among high school teachers in the United States is effective in increasing students’ academic achievement. Today, technological literacy is important in many ways, as it enables individuals to function effectively in complex, knowledge-based, and information-rich environments. (Ahmadi et al., 2017).

The third category resulting from this research is competencies related to structure and laws, which includes two sub-categories: awareness of the structures and procedures of education and laws and regulations. The structure of education, knowledge of the system of values and beliefs, education systems, legal laws, educational laws, and regulations, directives, and circulars are among the concepts that the researchers obtained from this category. To accommodate student population growth, diverse academic programs, evolving career options, and the connection between education and career paths, the education system requires a structured and rule-based approach to academic and career planning for students (Rahimi et al., 2022). In the United States of America, Britain, Denmark, Finland, and Germany, there is no national education system, and curriculum planning and the amount of the program are managed in a decentralized manner (Jamshidi et al., 2021). Sports in European schools include compulsory PE classes and extracurricular activities, which ensure both the teaching of skills and the health benefits for students (Jamshidi et al., 2021). Kobel et al. (2017) believes that the policies, schedule, and PE curriculum should be designed in such a way that sufficient time is provided for students to engage in physical activities throughout the day. Keegan (2016) believes that relying solely on PE class hours can meet the movement needs of children and adolescents due to the number of our students spend in school and the fact that 80.0% of children only exercise at school.

Research literacy is another main category resulting from this research, which includes two sub-categories: research related to the profession and research skills. In this study, the researchers obtained concepts such as action research, lesson study, education research, narrative research, the ability to search, knowledge of scientific databases, and the ability to analyze scientifically, all of which are influential factors on research knowledge. MacPhail et al. (2025) consider having research skills to be one of the basic needs of teachers. Teaching and promoting research methods among teachers and education staff will develop and expand the research culture in the educational system and increase the quality of education (Arthur, 2012). In education, action research is a useful method for creating change through problem-solving, observation, and reflection, but it has received less attention in the field of PE (Keegan, 2016). Research in practice increases knowledge in learning, increases teacher performance, and improves their teaching methods (Kleinpell et al., 2016). Action research projects create a more constructive balance in all stages of education (Nasiri Firuz, 2024). Research has shown that if we want to develop action research professionally, we must address program needs and organizational needs (Morales et al., 2016). Kim (2016), in his research aimed at investigating the challenges of action research for PE teachers, concluded that the challenges they face are mainly related to executive and organizational structures, meaning that these factors prevent the proper implementation of action research programs in the field of PE for teachers. Another sub-category that was obtained regarding research knowledge is lesson study. Lesson study is actually a non-linear approach to professional learning (Slingerland et al., 2021). There is little research on the use of lesson study among PE teachers (Lamb & King, 2021). The ability to search and knowledge of scientific databases are among the concepts that the researchers obtained from the sub-category of research skills.

The category of specialized knowledge in this research includes the sub-categories: management and planning, motor behavior, physiology and kinesiology, assessment and measurement, pathology, and motor competencies. This research covered concepts in sports skills, physical fitness, talent identification, motor and sports tests, PE rubrics, corrective exercises, first aid, anatomy and kinesiology, sports psychology, growth and motor learning, and sports management (including event, leisure, volunteer, facility, equipment, and organizational aspects). Silander and Stigmar (2023) argue that teachers should understand students' cognitive learning processes and group dynamics to effectively adapt educational content, thereby enhancing students' comprehension and learning. Improved teacher knowledge of student learning methods leads to better, more efficient education. Kim (2021) believes that students in classrooms model their teachers’ skills, and if they do not transfer the skills well to the students, the students cannot model them.

The category of professional knowledge is another category that was obtained by the researchers in this study, which itself includes the sub-categories of educational psychology, clinical psychology, educational sciences, and professional ethics. Personality recognition, psychological empowerment, behavior recognition, academic management, mental disorders, developmental psychology, health psychology, philosophy of education, inclusive education, adherence to ethical values in school, the privacy of students, and respect for the rights of students and families are concepts that influence the professional knowledge of teachers. Jones (2022) believes that professional learning is an activity that is designed to improve teachers’ performance and change the amount of student learning. considers professional learning to be valid when teachers fully understand it and use it in their professional context (Jones, 2022). Professional learning is valid when teachers understand and apply it effectively in their practice (Jones, 2022). If teachers participate in in-service training to improve their professional skills, they will also gain job satisfaction (Sato et al., 2022). There is no psychological support and sufficient time for cultural and social exchange in public schools for teachers (Sato et al., 2022). Ahmadi et al. (2023) believe that the social well-being of individuals, which is directly related to the individual’s socialization, is one of the factors affecting the optimal performance of employees in their workplace and profession, and is also an important factor in accepting the law and social norms and increasing the individual’s job performance. If we want to evaluate the quality of a person’s relationship with the organization, social well-being in the workplace is one of the evaluation items. Rahiminezhad (2022) believe that gaining, maintaining, promoting and sustaining motivation are factors that are very necessary and vital for the professional development of teachers.

The last category of the findings of this research is the category of cultural development, which includes two sub-categories: cultural interactions and intercultural education. This category encompasses mental habits, interaction models (with students, colleagues, managers, and family), cultural knowledge, communication skills, curriculum development, teaching methods, beliefs, attitudes, and an understanding of political, social, and cultural systems. Sports, inherently interactive, fosters intercultural skills and tolerance (Maxera et al., 2020). However, several challenges impede PE teachers' comprehensive capacity. Cultural gaps, stemming from differing habits, beliefs, and norms between staff and students in multicultural classrooms (Wyant et al., 2020), and a lack of adequate training, leave many PE teachers feeling unprepared to manage multicultural classes (Papageorgiou et al., 2021). Curricula must therefore appropriately address multicultural environments, equipping teachers with necessary competencies (Papageorgiou et al., 2023). Focusing on the rationale, objectives, and methods of ongoing, adaptable education strengthens intercultural competencies (Kühnerstedt, 2019). Strategies like self-reflection and effective educational program design and implementation are also key. Consequently, developing PE teachers' intercultural competence necessitates designing and delivering targeted programs and training (Papageorgiou et al., 2023).

Beyond developing new cultural competencies, teachers should refine existing ones through an intercultural lens, and PE teachers should critically examine their beliefs and teaching practices (Grimminger, 2011). O’Leary (2019) emphasizes the significant impact of socialization on PE teachers' methodologies, noting that while research exists on their lives and careers, evolving societal contexts necessitate ongoing investigation into their development and the factors influencing their teaching. Washburn et al. (2020) proposes a three-stage model of acculturation, professional socialization, and organizational socialization, viewing the latter as beginning with initial training and progressing into the school environment. Furthermore, PE teachers foster social awareness through the connection between motor, emotional, cognitive, and social skills (Smith et al., 2021).

Conclusion

This study identified key educational needs for PE teachers, including knowledge of PE teaching, technology, structure, research, specialization, and profession, as well as developmental documentation. Based on these needs, an educational needs assessment model was designed. Effective educational planning also relies on well-structured training courses with qualified instructors, monitored educational methods and content, thorough teacher and learner assessments, and adequate sports facilities and equipment. Successful training course implementation depends on trainee support, qualified instructors, sufficient funding, effective management of time, space, and equipment, and positive attitudes from officials. Evaluation indices and measurements derived from this study define the elements and indicators for evaluating PE teacher training programs. Consequently, a comprehensive educational model for PE teachers should begin by assessing their educational needs, identifying factors influencing the educational program, and determining factors affecting course implementation and evaluation.

Limitations of the Research

1- Due to the evolving nature of teachers' needs and the education system, this study's 1402-1403 findings may not remain current. Periodic needs assessments (every 3-5 years) are recommended to ensure ongoing relevance.

2- The educational model's design, based solely on thematic analysis of developmental documents and expert opinions, without incorporating other theoretical approaches or common educational models, may limit its generalizability and comparability.

3- While the study included diverse experts, teachers, and administrators, elementary teachers, particularly those in primary school, were less directly examined, potentially limiting the findings' applicability to this group.

4- The reliance on semi-structured interviews, while providing in-depth information, introduces potential respondent bias and researcher interpretation due to their subjective nature.

Practical suggestions

1. The Ministry of Education should revise the PE syllabus and content based on this study's findings, and develop needed courses that are currently lacking.
2. A thorough review of the in-service training system, content selection, and implementation methods for both pre-service and in-service PE teacher training is essential.
3. Professional socialization courses should be created to integrate new teachers into the educational system, familiarizing them with its structure, culture, and regulations.
4. Farhan Gian University should update the PE Department's syllabus to reflect this study's findings.
5. Training courses should be held for school administrators and executives to educate them on the aims and curriculum of PE, aligning with the Fundamental Transformation of Education Document.
6. Selection criteria for teacher training courses should prioritize expertise, practical experience, educational level, and skill in conveying scientific concepts.

Future Research Suggestions

1. Design the educational model for PE teachers based on diverse qualitative theories.
2. Evaluate the model's reliability, validity, and effectiveness using quantitative methods.
3. Develop separate training models for primary and secondary school PE teachers, addressing their distinct goals and content. Conduct a study to create a tailored educational model for Farhangian University teachers, considering their specific needs.
4. Research the influence of artificial intelligence, virtual reality, learning applications, and digital media on PE teachers' professional growth.
5. Implement the model in a pilot program within select educational settings and assess its impact on teacher performance and student learning over at least one year.
6. Create and validate a comprehensive questionnaire or checklist to evaluate teachers' educational, specialized, and research competencies.

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our gratitude and appreciation to the Office of PE and Sports Activities of the Ministry of Education, the PE teachers, experts and specialists, and the respected principals and educational supervisors of PE who assisted us in this research.

Conflicts of Interest

No conflicts of interest to declare.

Funding

The present study received no financial support from any organization or institution.

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